Captain John Smith

excerpts from

The Generall Historie of Virginia, New-England, and the Summer Isles
(1624)

Excerpts from the Original Electronic Text found at Documenting the American South.

The following are John Smith's observations about gender roles among the Powhatans.  For those interested in Native American culture at the time of First Contact, Capt. John Smith's writings are an important primary source.  He had an interest in cultures other than his own and an eye for detail.  (Archeological evidence has confirmed the accuracy of some of his descriptions.)  Nevertheless, his experiences as a European man shaped what he paid attention to and how he interpreted what he saw.

Most Europeans observing Indian culture saw native women as oppressed drudges, and native gender roles were one reason why Europeans considered Indians to be "savages."  For example, Thomas Jefferson wrote in his Notes on the State of Virginia (1781) that Indian
women are submitted to unjust drudgery. This I believe is the case with every barbarous people. With such, force is law. The stronger sex therefore imposes on the weaker. It is civilization alone which replaces women in the enjoyment of their natural equality. That first teaches us to subdue the selfish passions, and to respect those rights in others which we value in ourselves. Were we in equal barbarism, our females would be equal drudges."
How should we interpret Smith's observations?  Does the evidence he presents support Jefferson's view?

N.B. Spelling has been modernized here (as has punctuation and paragraphing to a limited degree). The paragraph numbers are not part of the original document. Editorial explanations are in square brackets [ ].  


 

Of the Natural Inhabitants of Virginia

{1} The land is not populous, for the men be few; their far greater number is of women and children. Within 60 miles of James Town, there are about some 5000 people, but of able men fit for their wars scarce 1500. To nourish so many together they have yet no means, because they make so small a benefit of their land, be it never so fertile. . . . the people differ very much in stature, especially in language, as before is expressed. Some being very great as the Sasquesahanicks; others very little, as the Wighcocomocaes: but generally tall and straight, of a comely proportion, and of a color brown when they are of any age, but they are born white. Their hair is generally black, but few have any beards. The men wear half their beards shaven, the other half long; for Barbers they use their women, who with two shells will grate away the hair, of any fashion they please. The women are [women's hair is] cut in many fashions, agreeable to their years, but ever some part remaineth long. They [the native people] are very strong, of an able body and full of agility, able to endure to lie in the woods under a tree by the fire, in the worst of winter, or in the weeds and grass, in Ambuscado [waiting to ambush their prey] in the Summer. They are inconstant in everything, but what fear constraineth them to keep. Crafty, timorous, quick of apprehension, and very ingenuous. Some are of disposition fearful, some bold, most cautious, all Savage. Generally covetous of Copper, Beads, and such like trash. They are soon moved to anger, and so malicious, that they seldom forget an injury: they seldom steal one from another, least their conjurers should reveal it, and so they be pursued and punished. That they are thus feared is certain, but that any can reveal their offenses by conjuration I am doubtful. Their women are careful not to be suspected of dishonesty [adultery] without the leave of their husbands. Each household knoweth their own lands, and gardens, and most live of their own labors. For their apparel, they are sometime covered with the skins of wild beasts, which in Winter are dressed with the hair, but in Summer without. The better sort use large mantels of Deer skins, not much differing in fashion from the Irish mantels. Some embroidered with white beads, some with Copper, other painted after their manner. But the common sort have scarce to cover their nakedness, but with grass, the leaves of trees, or such like. We have seen some use mantels made of Turkey feathers, so prettily wrought & woven with threads that nothing could be discerned but the feathers. That was exceeding warm and very handsome. But the women are always covered about their middles with a skin, and very shamefaced to be seen bare. They adorn themselves most with copper beads and paintings. Their women, some have their legs, hands, breasts and face cunningly embroidered with diverse works, as beasts, serpents, artificially wrought into their flesh with black spots. In each ear commonly they have 3 great holes, where at they hang chains, bracelets, or copper. Some of their men wear in those holes, a small green and yellow colored snake, near half a yard in length, which crawling and lapping her self about his neck oftentimes familiarly would kiss his lips. Others wear a dead Rat tied by the tail. Some on their heads wear the wing of a bird, or some large feather with a Rattle. Those Rattles are somewhat like the shape of a Rapier, but less, which they take from the tail of a snake. Many have the whole skin of a Hawke or some strange fowl, stuffed with the wings abroad. Others a broad piece of Copper, and some the hand of their enemy dried. Their heads and shoulders are painted red with the root Pocone brayed to powder [ground in a mortar and pestle], mixed with oil. This they hold in summer to preserve them from the heat, and in winter from the cold. Many other forms of paintings they use, but he is the most gallant [best dressed] that is the most monstrous to behold. . . .

The industry of their women
{2} The men bestow their times in fishing, hunting, wars, and such man-like exercises, scorning to be seen in any woman-like exercise, which is the cause that the women be very painful [hardworking], and the men often idle. The women and children do the rest of the work. They make mats, baskets, pots, mortars, pound their corn, make their bread, prepare their victuals, plant their corn, gather their corn, bear all kind of burdens, and such like. . . .

How They Spin
{3} Betwixt their hands and thighs, their women use to spin, the bark of trees, Deer sinews, or a kind of grass they call Pemmenaw, of these they make a thread very even and readily. This thread serveth for many uses. As about their housing, apparel, as also they make nets for fishing, for the quantity as formally braided as ours. . . .

Of their [the natives'] planted fruits in Virginia
{4} The greatest labor they take, is in planting their corn, for the Country naturally is overgrown with wood. To prepare the ground they bruise the bark of the trees near the root, then do they scorch the roots with fire that they grow no more. The next year with a crooked piece of wood they beat up the weeds by the roots, and in that mold they plant their Corn. Their manner is this. They make a hole in the earth with a stick, and into it they put four grains of wheat and two of beans These holes they make four foot one from another; Their women and children do continually keep it with weeding, and when it is grown middle high, they hill it about like a hop-yard. . . .

{5} In April they begin to plant, but their chief plantation is in May, and so they continue till the midst of June. What they plant in April they reap in August, for May in September, for June in October. . . .

{6} In May also amongst their corn they plant Pumpeons, and a fruit like unto a muskmelon, but less and worse, which they call Macocks. These increase exceedingly, and ripen in the beginning of July, and continue until September. They plant also Maracocks a wild fruit like a Lemon, which also increase infinitely. They begin to ripe in September, and continue till the end of October. When all their fruits be gathered, little else they plant, and this is done by their women and children; neither doth this long suffice them, for near three parts of the year, they only observe times and seasons, and live of what the Country naturally affordeth from hand to mouth . . . .



How [the natives] Hunt
{7} At their huntings they leave their habitations, and reduce themselves into companies, as the Tartars do, and go to the most desert places with their families, where they spend their time in hunting and fowling up towards the mountains, by the heads of their rivers, where there is plenty of game. For betwixt the rivers the grounds are so narrow, that little cometh here which they devour not. It is a marvel they can so directly passe these deserts, some 3 or 4 days journey without habitation. Their hunting houses are like unto Arbors covered with Mats. These their women bear after them, with Corn, Acorns, Mortars, and all bag and baggage they use. When they come to the place of exercise, every man doth his best to show his dexterity, for by their excelling in those qualities, they get their wives.


[Of War and Politics]

{8} They seldom make war for lands or goods, but for women and children, and principally for revenge. . . .  The Werowance's women and children they put not to death, but keep them Captives. . . .

Of the Manner of the Virginians' Government
{9} Although the Country people be very barbarous, yet have they amongst them such government, as that their Magistrates for good commanding, and their people for due subjection, and obeying, excel many places that would be counted very civil. The form of their Commonwealth is a Monarchical government, one as Emperor ruleth over many Kings or Governors. Their chief ruler is called Powhatan, and taketh his name of his principal place of dwelling called Powhatan. But his proper name is Wahunsonacock. Some Countries he hath which have been his ancestors, and came unto him by inheritance. . . .  All the rest of his Territories expressed in the Map, they report have been his several Conquests. . . .

{10} He hath as many women as he will, whereof when he lieth on his bed, one sitteth at his head, and another at his feet, but when he sitteth, one sitteth on his right hand and another on his left. As he is weary of his women, he bestoweth them on those that best deserve them at his hands. When he dineth or suppeth, one of his women before and after meat, bringeth him water in a wooden platter to wash his hands. Another waiteth with a bunch of feathers to wipe them in stead of a Towel, and the feathers when he hath wiped are dried again. His kingdoms descend not to his sons nor children, but first to his brethren. . . , and after their decease to his sisters. First to the eldest sister, then to the rest, and after them to the heirs male or female of the eldest sister, but never to the heirs of the males. . . .

{11} What he commandeth they dare not disobey in the least thing. It is strange to see with what great fear and adoration, all these people do obey this Powhatan. For at his feet they present whatsoever he commandeth, and at the least frown of his brow, their greatest spirits will tremble with fear: and no marvel, for he is very terrible & tyrannous in punishing such as offend him. For example, he caused certain malefactors to be bound hand and foot, then having of many fires gathered great store of burning coals, they rake these coals round in the form of a cockpit, and in the midst they cast the offenders to broil to death. . . .  Their ordinary correction is to beat them with cudgels. We have seen a man kneeling on his knees, and at Powhatan's command, two men have beat him on the bare skin, till he hath fallen senseless in a swoon, and yet never cry nor complained. And he made a woman for playing the whore, sit upon a great stone, on her bare breech twenty four hours, only with corn and water, every three days, till nine days were past, yet he loved her exceedingly: notwithstanding there are common whores by profession.

[Smith Meets Powhatan and Pocahontas]
{12} Before a fire upon a seat like a bedstead, [Powhatan] sat covered with a great robe, made of Rarowcun [racoon] skins, and all the tails hanging by. On either hand did sit a young wench of 16 to 18 years, and along on each side the house, two rows of men, and behind them as many women, with all their heads and shoulders painted red; many of their heads bedecked with the white down of Birds; but every one with something: and a great chain of white beads about their necks. At his [John Smith's] entrance before the King, all the people gave a great shout. The Queen of Appamatuck was appointed to bring him water to wash his hands, and another brought him a bunch of feathers, instead of a Towel to dry them: having feasted him after their best barbarous manner they could, a long consultation was held, but the conclusion was, two great stones were brought before Powhatan: then as many as could laid hands on him, dragged him to them, and thereon laid his head, and being ready with their clubs, to beat out his brains, Pocahontas the King's dearest daughter, when no entreaty could prevail, got his head in her arms, and laid her own upon his to save him from death: whereat the Emperor was contented he should live to make him hatchets, and her bells, beads, and copper; for they thought him as well of all occupations as themselves. For the King himself will make his own robes, shoes, bows, arrows, pots; plant, hunt, or do any thing so well as the rest.



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